Diabetes Mellitus: A Comprehensive Overview of Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, Diagnosis, Complications, and Management

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels due to impaired insulin secretion, resistance to insulin action, or both. It includes type 1 and type 2 diabetes, each with distinct mechanisms but sharing common complications and management challenges. Over recent decades, the prevalence of diabetes has increased dramatically worldwide, becoming a major public health issue with significant social and economic consequences. This review summarizes the essential aspects of diabetes mellitus, including its classification, underlying causes, risk factors such as genetics, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle, as well as current diagnostic criteria. The short- and long-term complications—ranging from acute metabolic disturbances to chronic organ damage—are also discussed, with an emphasis on cardiovascular, renal, and neurological outcomes. Management strategies are explored from a modern perspective, covering insulin therapy, oral medications, lifestyle interventions, and patient education. The review also highlights new therapeutic options such as GLP-1 receptor agonists and SGLT2 inhibitors, which offer improved glycemic control and cardiovascular protection. Preventive measures, including early screening and public health initiatives, are emphasized as crucial tools in reducing the growing burden of diabetes globally. Overall, this article provides a concise yet comprehensive overview of diabetes mellitus, aiming to inform healthcare professionals and support more effective, integrated approaches to treatment and prevention.